THE CHOLAS

The Later Cholas

The cholas are one among the popular and well-known Tamil monarchs in the history of South India. The elobrate state structure, the extensive irrigation network,the vast number of temples they built,their great contributions to art and architecture and their overseas exploits have given them a pre-eminent position in histoty.

Revival of the Chola rule

The ancient Chola kingdom reigned supreme with the kaveri delta forming the core area of its rule and with Uraiyur(present-day Thiruchirapalli)as its capital. It rose to prominence during the reign of Karikala but gradually declined under his successors. In the 9th century Vijalaya, ruling over a small territory lying north of the kaveri,revived the chola Dynasty. He conquered Thanjavur and made it his capital. Later Rajendra 1 and his successors ruled the empire from Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the newly built capital.

(Rajendra Cholan)...

Rajaraja 1 (A.D.(CE) 985-1014) was the most powerful ruler of Chola empire and also grew popular beyond his times. He estabilished Chola authority over large parts of South India. His much-acclaimed navel expedition led to the expansion of cholas into the WestCoast and Srilanka. He built the famous Rajarajeswaran (Brihadeshwara) Temple in Thanjavur. His son and successor, Rajendra Chola 1 (A.D.CE) 1014-1044, matched his father in his ability to expand the empire. The Chola empire remained a powerful force in South India during his reign.

After his accession, his striking military expedition was to northern India,capturing much territory there. He proclaimed himself the Gangaikondan (Conqueror of the Gangai region). The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple was built to commemorate his victories in North India. The navy of Rajendra Chola enabled him to conquer the kingdom of Srivijaya (Southern Sumatra). Cholas' control over the seas facilitated a flourishing overseas trade.

Decline of the Chola Empire

Rajendra Chola's three successors were not capable rulers. The third successor Veerajendra's son Athirajendra was killed in civil unrest. With his death ended the Vijayalaya line of Chola rule.

On hearing the death of Athirajendra, the Eastern Chalukya Prince Rajendra Chaulakya seized the Chola throne and began the rule of Chalukya-Chola throne and began the rule of Chaulkya -Chola dynasty as Kulothunga 1.

Kulothunga estabilished himself firmly on the Chola throne soon eliminating all the threats to the Chola Empire. He avoided unneceesary wars and earned the goodwill of his subjects. But Kulothunga lost the territories in Ceylon. The Pandaya territory also began to slip out of Chola control. Kanchipuram was lost to the Telugu Cholas . The year 1279 marks the end of Chola dynasty when king Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan 1 defeated the last king Rajendra Chola 3 and estabilished the rule of the Pandays in present -day Tamil Nadu.

Administration

The central administration was in the hands of king. As the head of the state, the king enjoyed enormous powers. The king's orders were written down in palm leaves by his officials or inscribed on the temple walls. The kingship was hereditary in nature. The ruler selected his eldest son as heir apparent. He was known as Yuvaraja. The Yuvarajas were appointed as Governorns in the provinces mainly for administrative training.

The Chola rulers estabilished a well-organised system of administration. The empire, for administrative convenience, was divided into provinces or mandalams. Each mandalam was sub-divided into naadus. Within each naadu, there were many Kurrams (groups of villages). The lowest unit was the gramam(village).

Local Governance

Local administration worked through various bodies such as Urar, Sabhaiyar, Nagarattar and Nattar. With the expansion of agriculture, numerous peasant settlements came upon the countryside. They were known as Ur. The Urar, who were Landholders acted as spokesman in the Ur. Sabhaiyar in Brahman villages also functioned in carrying out administrative, financial and judicial functions. Nagarattar administered the settlement of traders. However,skilled artisans like masons, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, weavers and potters also lived in Nagaram. Nattar functioned as an assembly of Nadu and decided all the disputes and issues pertaining to Nadu.

The assembilies in Ur.Sabha, Nagaram and Nadu worked through various committes. The commities took care of irrigation, roads, temples, gardens, collection of revenue and conduct of religious festivals.

Uttiramerur Inscriptions

Uttiramerur presently in Kanchipuram district was a Brahmadeya village (land grants given to Brahmins). There is a detailed description of how members were elected to the commitees of the village sabha in the inscriptions found there. One member was to be elected from each ward. There were 30 wards in total. The eligibility to contest was to men in the age group of 35-70, well-versed in vedic texts and scriptures, and also owned land and house. The process of election was as follows: The names of qualified candidates from each ward were written on the palm-leaf slips and put into a pot. The eldest of the assembly would engage a boy to pull out one slip and declare his name. Various committees were decided in this way.

Revenue

The revenue of the Chola state came mainly from the land. The land tax was known as Kanikadan. The Chola rulers carried out an elaborate survey of land in order to fix the government's share of the land revenue. One-third of produce was collected as land tax. It was collected mostly in Kind. In addition to land tax, there were taxes on profession and tolls on trade.

Religion

Chola rulers were ardent saivites. Hymns, in praise of the deeds of Lord siva, were composed by the saiva saints, the Nayanmars. NambiyandarNambi codified them, which came to be known as the Thirumurai.

Temples

The Chola period witnessed an extensive construction of temples. The temples in Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram are the repository of architecture, sculpture, paintings and iconography of the Chola art. Temples during the Chola period were not merely places of worship. They were the largest landholders. Temples promoted education, and devotional forms of art such as dance, music and drama. The staff of the temples included temple officials, dancing girls, musicians, singers, players of musical instruments and the priests.